第一篇:写英文论文的连接词大全
论文
1)先后次序关系:at this time;first;second;at last;next;previously;simultaneously同时地;eventually;last but not least;to begin with;to start with;to end with;finally;seeing...由于,因为;since then;first of all;afterwards后来;following this;preceding先前的;originally最初的ultimate最终的,极限的,根本的
2)因果关系:because;because of this;being that(口语)既然,因为;another important factor/reason of...; since; as; for; in that...; owing to由于,通常负面; due to由于; for the reason that...;
in view of鉴于,考虑到 result from归因于the reason seems to be obvious;there are about...;for this reason;as a result of this; therefore;...and so...; consequently所以,因此;as a result; thus这样,如此,因而; hence因此; so;so that...; in consequence结果,结果; as a consequence; accordingly因此,于是,相应地;inevitably不可避免地;under these conditions thereupon因此于是upon迫近
3)转折关系:but;even so;however;though;even though;independent of;reckless of不顾 ;despite that; in spite of that; regardless of不顾;yet...;and yet; but unless.Nonetheless尽管如此
4)并列关系: and;also;too;as well as;either...,or...;both...and...5)(补充)递进关系: furthermore此外,而且;moreover而且,此外;further进一步地,此外;In this way ;still; not only...but also...; not...but...; in addition(to);additionally, much more interesting, more specifically更具体地说, next, besides; as far as...is concerned至于;moreover此外;in other words;
along this line of consideration;on(the)one hand...在一方面,on the other hand...; even; as a saying goes...;in order to do it...;meanwhile同时; at the same time; accordingly因此; In the first place...,in the second place...;equally important;of even greater appeal.6)比较关系: similarly;in like manner, in comparison with;when compared with;compared with;when in fact...;like...; likewise同样地,也; similarly important; apart from(doing)...;...rather than...,by doing so ;both…and...;in the same way;not only...but(also).7)对照(不同点):yet;still;for all of that;notwithstanding虽然,尽管;rather当然,的确,宁愿,相当;neither...nor;although;though;but;however;something is just the other way around;yet;conversely相反的; unlike; opposed to;as opposed to this与不同 ; in contrast(to); by way of;on the contrary;different from this; nevertheless然而,不过,虽然如此;contrary to; whereas但是,鉴于; while;but on the other hand 8)举例关系:for example; for instance例如; in this case既然假若这样;namely也就是 instance例子实例 换句话说; as you know; you may as/say; as he explains; like; such as; a case in point is一个恰当的例子是...;consider...; in particular尤其特别;including...;for one thing...首先,for another...;put it simply;stated roughly粗糙地,概略地; as an illustration,I will say...; a good example(of...)would be...;to detail this,I would like to...; It is interesting to note that...;in this situation;as proof;take the case of;take as example(something); as for;as regards; as to; according to;on this occasion.9)强调关系:in fact;especially;particularly特别,尤其;moreover(此外);naturally;what is more important;in reality事实上; certainly;of course;indeed;in particular;not to mention...;believe it or not;undeniably(无可置疑);other thing being equal;it is certain/sure that...;to be strict;to be true;by definition;definitely明确地,肯定地;undoubtedly;without a doubt;in truth, in any event(不论怎样);without reservation(毫无保留地);obviously, not only..but(also...), both...and...10)条件关系: if;unless;lest;provided that;if it is the case;in this sense;once...;if possible;if necessary;if so;if not all;if anything.11)归纳总结类: in a word / in sum / in short in brief / in conclusion / in summary therefore因此,所以 / hence因此,今后 to sum up / to conclude the conclusion can be drawn that for this reason / on the whole 12)地点关系:beyond;opposite to;adjacent邻近to;at the same place;there;over;in the middle;around;in front of;in the distance;farther;here and there;above;below;at the right;between;on this side.13)目的关系:with this object无证;for this purpose;in order that;in this way, since;so that;on that account由于。。缘故;in case万一;with a view to考虑到;for the same reason.14)重申关系:in other words;that is to say;as I have said;again;once again.15)结果关系:accordingly;thus;consequently(因此);hence;therefore;thereupon;inevitably;under these conditions;as a result;as a consequence;because;because of;so that;not only...but(also...);so...as to.16)顺序关系:first;second;thirdly;next;then;at the outset(在开始时),following this;at this time;now;at this point;after;afterward后来;after this;subsequently后来;lastly最终;finally;consequently所以,因此;before this;previously;preceding this;simultaneously同时地;concurrently(同时发生的)17)时间关系:at once;immediately;at length终于,最后;in the mean time同时;meanwhile;at the same time;in the end;then;soon;not long after;later;at once;at last;finally;some time ago;at present;all of a sudden突然;from this time on;from time to time;since then;when;whenever;next point;a few minutes later;formerly;as;once;since;occasionally偶然地;in a moment;shortly立刻;whereupon于是,因此;previously Henceforth今后 介词 prep.All of十足
1.在...以前
Only two days remained before the examination.考前只剩下两天了。
2.(指顺序、重要性等)在...之前,先于 Your name comes before mine.你的名字在我之前。Pride comes before a fall.骄必败。3.由...考虑中
We will put the matter before the committee.我将把此事提交委员会考虑。4.在...前面;在...面前
She said she had never spoken before an audience.她说她从未在大庭广众讲演过。状语从句引导词 时间状语从句
when, as, while, as soon as, before, after, since , till, until
特殊引导词:the minute, the moment, the second, every time, the day,the instant, immediately , directly, no sooner … than, hardly …when, scarcely … when倒装
地点状语从句
常用引导词:where
特殊引导词:Wherever, anywhere, everywhere 原因状语从句
常用引导词:because, since, as, for
特殊引导词:seeing that, now that, in that, considering that, given that.目的状语从句
常用引导词:so that, in order that
特殊引导词:lest, in case, for fear that,in the hope that, for the purpose that, to the end that 结果状语从句
常用引导词:so … that, such … that,特殊引导词:such that, to the degree that, to the extent that, to such a degree that, 程度
条件状语从句
常用引导词:if, unless,特殊引导词:as/so long as, only if, providing/provided that, supposing that, in case that, on condition that 让步状语从句
常用引导词:though, although, even if, even though
特殊引导词: as(用在让步状语从句中必须要倒装),while(一般用在句首),no matter …,in spite of the fact that, while, whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, however, whichever 8. 比较状语从句
常用引导词:as(同级比较), than(不同程度的比较)
特殊引导词:the more … the more …;just as …,so…;A is to B what /as X is to Y;no … more than;not A so much as B 方式状语从句
常用引导词:as, as if, how
特殊引导词:the way From the invaders arrived, breathed our air, ate and drank, they were doomed.They were undone,destroyed,after all of man’s weapons and devices had failed,by the tiniest creatures that God in his wisdom put upon this earth.By the toll of a billion deaths, man had earned his immunity, his right to survive among this planet’s infinite无限的 organisms有机体.And that right is ours against all challenges.For neither do men live nor die in vain.IN VAIN徒劳,白白 point point ? ?英音:[p?int] ? ?美音:[p??nt] ? 名词 n.1.尖,尖端,尖头[C][(+of)] Do you have a pencil with a sharper point? 你有尖一点的铅笔吗? 2.(空间的)一点,处,地方,位置[C] 3.特点,特征[C] Dancing is not her strong point.支撑点,据点 她不擅长跳舞。4.(时间上的)一点,(特定)时刻;瞬间[C][U] 5.分数;(比赛等的)得分[C] In the game we got ten points while the Medical School got only three.比赛中我们得了十分,而医学院只得了三分。6.思想;论点[C] 7.要点;中心思想[the S] He missed the whole point of my speech.他完全没抓住我讲话的要点。8.意义;目的;用途[U][(+in/of)] There is no point in complaining.They can't do anything to help you.抱怨于事无补;他们没办法帮助你。9.【数】点;小数点;标点[C] 10.一小点,斑点[C][(+of)] 11.岬[C]cape 12.(电的)接触点;【英】插座
及物动词 vt.1.把...指向,把...对准;瞄准[(+at/towards)] It's rude to point your fingers at people.用手指指人是很不礼貌的。2.指出[(+out)] He pointed out that they were mistaken.他指出他们错了。3.强调[(+up)]emphasize动词stress 4.弄尖,削尖
She pointed the pencil for her sister.她给妹妹削铅笔。5.给...加标点;给...加小数点
不及物动词 vi.1.指,指出,指明[(+at/to)] He pointed at the book he wanted.他指着他要的那一本书。2.指向,对准;朝向[Q][(+to/towards)] The hands of the clock now pointed to half past three.这时时针指向三点半。3.显示,表明;证明[(+at/to/towards)]
第二篇:英文写作连接词
新托福独立写作一共有3个评分标准:如
因此,有了以上的大致信息后,考生就应该多思考如何能在30分钟内缔造出完美的文章结构,来获得考官的青睐?一篇好的结构不仅包括必备的连接词和过渡句,自然也离不开永恒的内在统一。
第一,连接词过渡句
任何形式的英语文章中都应该具备一定量的连接词(路标词),因为它们是有助于读者顺利阅读的“导航坐标”;大多数考生在备考时也的确会准备一系列此类连接词,用于文章每个段落的段首;包括有表示“第一,第二,第三”等的连接词。但是单纯有段首连接词还不足以支撑全文的结构,因此考生应该同时准备段中连接词,包括“比如说,因为,但是,相对比而言”等,粗略估计,全文完成下来可以达到15个以上的路标词,不仅承接了全文,结构清晰明了,而且也为时间紧张下的写作减轻了不少字数压力。以下为整理的常用连接词:
1,第一:in the first place/ first and foremost/ to start with/ to begin with/ first of all/ first/ firstly
2,第二:in the second place/ secondly and equal importantly/ to continue/ second/ secondly
3,第三:in the third place/ last but not least/ third/ thirdly
4,一方面、另一方面:on one hand/ on the other hand;for one thing/ for another
5,表原因:because/ because of/ since/ due to/ as/ thanks to/ for/ owing to
6,表结果:so/ therefore/ as a result/ consequently/ as a consequence7,表举例:for example/ for instance/ such as/ take…as an example/ to illustrate
8,表承接:besides/ furthermore/ moreover/ what's more/ in addition/ additionally
9,表转折:but/ while/ however/ nevertheless/ nonetheless
10,表比较对比: to compare with/ compared with/ in comparison with/ by contrast/ on the contrary
当然,仅仅依靠连接词是不足以表明全文的连贯性的,适当的添加过渡句也是很好的承接手段,如Official Guide To The New TOEFL P263中有一篇关于DISHONESTY KILLS RELIABILITY 的5分范文中就有出现多处明显的段落过渡句,如第三段首“After stating that everyone's opinion can be different about this, for me honesty, in other words, always telling…”用来承接上下两段,以引出自己的观点看法;第五段首“Although I would like to see altruistic, understanding, thoughtful and loyal behavior from people, an instance of the opposite…”等都明显具备良好的过渡功能,让全文更加流畅舒服,朗朗上口。
第三篇:高考英文写作常用连接词
一.文章及段落起始过渡词语
1.Tobeginwith2.Generallyspeaking
3.Firstofall4.Inthefirstplace
二.文章及结尾常用的过渡词语
1.Therefore2.Thus3.Thisway4.Inconclusion
5.Tosumup6.Inaword
7.Inbrief8.Asamatteroffact
三.常见的表示先后顺序的过渡词语
1.First,…Second,…Next,…Finally,…
2.Afterwards,…3.Meanwhile,…4.Then,…
5.Firstly,…Secondly,…Eventually,…
6.Atlast7.Immediately8.suddenly9.soon
四.常见的对称关系的过渡词语
1.Foronething,…foranotherthing,…
2.Ononehand,…ontheotherhand,…
五.常见的表示因果关系的过渡词语
1.Forthisreason2.Asaresult3.becauseof
4.Dueto5.Thanksto6.Thus
7.Inthisway8.Accordingly9.Therefore
六.常见的表示递进关系的词语
1.What’smore2.Tomakethematterworse
3.Worsestill4.What’sworse
5.Apartfromthese6.Moreover
7.Inparticular8.Naturally
9.Furthermore10.Indeed
七.常见的表示举例的过渡词语
1.forexample2.namely=thatis
3.suchas4.forinstance5.take…forexample
八.常见的转折关系的过渡词语
1.however2.while3.though4.otherwise
九.常见的表示条件的过渡词语
1.onconditionthat2.aslongas3.solongas
十.常见的表示让步关系的过渡词语
1.evenif2.eventhough3.though4.although5.whether
6.whoever/whatever/whenever/ whichever/wherever
7.nomatterwhere/who/what/when
十一.常见的比较和对比的过渡词语
1.incontrastwith2.onthecontrary
3.equallyimportant4.comparedwith
十二.常见的插人语过渡词语
1.Ithink…2.Isuppose…3.I’mafraid…
4.Nowyousee … 5.Asweallknow,… 6.AsfarasIknow,…
十三.常见的关于并列关系的过渡词语
1.or2.and…aswell3.aswellas
4.either5.too6.also
十四.常见的有关描写图表的过渡词语
1.Fromtheabovetable/ chart/form2.Duringthisperiod
3.Thetableshowsthat…4.Ithasbeenillustratedthat…这些起链接作用的表达方式隐藏在写作内容要点之间,却又是高分书面表达中必
不可少的手段。
书面表达中议论文常用典型句型
一.用于驳斥和比较的常用句型
1.Ingeneral,Idon’tagreewith…
2.Inmyopinion,thispointofviewdoesn’tholdwater.3.Thereisnodoubtthat…
4.Whatismoreseriousisthat…
5.Besides,weshouldnotneglectthat…
6.Thechiefreasonwhy…isthat…
7.Buttheproblemisnotsosimple.Therefore…
8.Wehavenoreasontobelievethat…
二.用于描写和数据的常用句型
1.Thetableshowsathreetimesincreasesoverthat of lastyear.2.Itwasdecreasedtwicethanthatoftheyear2002.3.Ithasincreasedbythreetimescomparedwiththatof1998.4.Thereisanincreaseof20%intotalthisyear.5.Thenumberisfivetimesasmuchasthatof200.6.Thetotalnumberwaslowedby10%.7.Comparedwith1997,itfellfrom15to10percent.8.Itwouldbeexpectedtoincrease5times.9.Thenumberofthestudentsofthisschoolhasbeengrowing
by20%comparedwiththatoflastyear.10.Thetotaloutputofcrops/telephones/cars/computershas
increasesfrom10,000to20,000intheyear2004.11.Thetimethestudentsspendontheirhomeworkisdouble
whattheyspenddoingthehousework.12.Theincomeoftheurbanresidentshasincreasedfrom30,000
yuanto50,000yuan,whichistwiceofthepastfiveyears.三.解释原因,分析影响的常用句型
1.Itcanbeeasilyprovedthat…
2.Iamoftheopinionthat…
3.Totake…asanexample…
4.Noonecandenythat…
5.Thechangein…largelyresultsfromthefactthat…
6.Aseveryoneknows,…
7.Itcanbeexpressedasfollows:
8.Thechiefreasonisthat…
四.有关文章,段落起始的常用句型
1.Astheproverbssays…
2.Withtherapidgrowthofoureconomy/ transportationsystem/heavyindustry/modernagriculture/privateenterprises/population/marketeconomy/housingindustry
3.WiththerapidgrowingpopularityofInternetsurfing/computers/cars/mobilesphones/televisioninChina,thequalityofourlivesisimprovingforthebetter.4.Withtherapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology / electronicindustry/informationindustry/highereducation…anincreasingnumberofpeoplecometoknowthat…
5.Thegovernmentis/Weareseriouslyconcernedwithdrugabuse/widespreadcorruption/organizedcrimes/highunemploymentrate…
6.Recentlytheissueof…hasbeenbroughttopublicattention./Nowpeopleingrowingnumberarecomingtorealizethat…
7.Itisquiteclearthat…because…
8.Itgoeswithoutsayingthat…/Generallyspeaking,…/Itisoftensaidthat…
五.有关文章和段落结尾的常用句型
1.Fromthispointofview,wecansee…
2.Withoutcomputer/cellphones/cars/telecommunication/Internet,itwouldbedifficulttoimaginemodernlife.3.Inaword/Inconclusion/Tosumup,…
4.Thus, thisis thereasonwhywemust …/ Itisobviousthatwemust…
5.Itishightimethatweputconsiderableemphasison…
6.Iwanttodo/be…notonlybecause…butalsobecause…
7.Letusworkhandinhandtodo…
8.In short, populationexplosion/environmentalpollutionarethemajorproblemstobesolvedtomakeourworldabetterplaceinwhichtolive.六.用于论证和说明的常用句型
1.Itisdescribedthat…
2.Ithasbeenillustrated…
3.Itprovidesagoodexampleof…
4.Anumberoffurtherfactsmaybeadded…
5.Arecentinvestigationindicatesthat…
6.Accordingtoalateststudy,itcanbeconcludedthat…
7.Examplesgivenleadustoconcludethat…
8.Allthefactssuggestedthat…
9.Noonecandenythefactthat…
10.Accordingtothelatestsurvey,wecandrawaconclusionthat…
第四篇:初中英语写作和连接词
一常见的作文类型提纲模板: 1.书信
a书信开头常用语
I am very glad to receive your letter(hear form you).Hello, Jane.Is everything going(on)well? /How is everything going(on)?(最近怎么样?)I’m writing to you for some advice on how to…(我正给你写关于...的建议的信)I’m writing to ask if you can...(我想写信问你 你是否能...)
How time flies!It has been..months/years since we last met.(光阴似箭,自从我们上次见面已经...月/年)
Thank you for inviting me to ….(谢谢邀请我...)b 书信结尾常用语
Best wishes(to/for you).Wish you good luck.(I am)looking forward to hearing from you.图表、数字比例型
(提出讨论或调查的事实)Last week, our class had a class meeting on(how to)… Here are the results.(表达出不同看法或观点)Most students think … While … 20% of them choose to….Another 15 believe… There are also some… saying that…(表达个人看法)As a student, I agree to… 说明利弊型
(开头点题)Nowadays … is becoming more and more popular.(阐述利弊)It has many advantages.First, 优点1… Besides, 优点2…
However, every coin has two sides.It also brings us bad influences.On the one hand, 缺点
1… On the other hand, 缺点2…(个人观点)In my opinion,个人观点...不同观点型
(开头提出观点)We made a survey about whether we should …提出矛盾问题.(分别揭示正反方的观点及其理由)Different people hold different ideas.Some believe …正方观点.First, 原因1… Besides, 原因2…
While others don’t agree.They think…反方观点.On the one hand, 原因1… On the other hand, 原因2…(结尾)As for me,个人观点 …(只选一方的观点)解决问题型
(开头)Recently, the…problem has been more and more serious.We/people should do something to solve it.(解决方法)Firstly, 方法1… Secondly, 方法2… Finally, 方法3…
(结尾)I am sure if everyone can make a contribution to …, the … will become better and better.二、常用过渡性词语
1、叙事文常用的句子间连接词:
At first;at last;in the end…
then/next/after that…然后,随后 when/while/as soon as/not… until…
at the same time(同时);at times(有时);once in a while(有时,偶尔);so that(以至于)
Luckily/fortunately/unluckily/unfortunately…
To one’s surprise/joy(令...惊讶/高兴的是...)in a word/all in all(总之)
2、议论文常用连接词
表示并列:either…or;neither…nor;both…and;not only…but also;
表示递进的:besides;what’s more;what’s worse;(moreover);还有,更甚的是 表示原因的:because;for…;because of…;thanks to…;(for the reason that…);
表示结果的:so;as a result;so…that…;therefore;所以,结果,因此,于是
表示目的的:so that…;in order that…;(in order)to…;for…;为了……
表示对比的:while;on the one hand + on the other hand;Each coin has two sides.;prefer…to…;
would rather do…than do…;表示转折的:however;but;
表示举例的:for example;for instance;such as…;like…;
that is to say…(也就是说)表示总结的:in all/short;in a word;in brief/ total;(总之,简言之)
last but not least(最后但同样重要的是);
表示利弊的:be good/bad for sb.;be harmful to sb.;do harm to sb.;…have great/much influence on sb.;
sth.benefit sb.;sb benefit from sth.(从..中受益);affect;have an effect on sb.(对...有影响);表示喜爱的:love/like/enjoy…;be fond of…;be interested in…;show great interest in…;lose oneself
in…(沉迷于);put one’s heart into…(全心投入,,);be good at;be poor at;be weak in;表达个人想法的:I think/believe…;(as)for me;in my opinion/view;as a student;personally(就自己而言)其他:in general;generally speaking(一般来说)
to be short;(简单的说)
in a way(从某种意义上说)
to be honest;to tell the truth;(老实说)
as we know(众所周知);
make up one’s mind to do(决定做...)
首先:first/ firstly/ at first/ at the beginning/ to begin with/ to start with 其次:second/ secondly/ then/ what's more/ besides 最后:finally/ at last/ in the end
第五篇:教你怎么写英文科技论文
如何撰写英文科技论文
如何撰写英文科技论文
英文科技论文写作是国际学术交流必需的技能。在撰写英语科技论文时,除了遵循科技论文的基本要求如“讲究逻辑,表达清晰,用词准确”外,还需要注意英文科技论文的写作格式。究其原因主要在于中国人和西方人思维方式有所不同,从而导致写作风格上的差异。这一点突出表现在文章结构和表达上的不同。譬如说,通常中国人行文较为含蓄,因此文章各段之间可能存在不明显的内在关联;而西方人则比较直截了当,他们的文章结构往往一目了然。因此,即使已有一篇现成的中文论文,在其基础上写英文论文也不能直接简单地逐字逐句翻译。
撰写英文科技论文的第一步就是推敲结构,使之成为西方人易于理解的形式。最简单有效的方法即采用IMRaD形式(Introduction,Materials and Methods,Results,and Disscussion),这是西方科技论文最通用的一种结构方式。
IMRaD结构的逻辑体现在它能依次回答以下问题:
·研究的是什么问题? 答案就是Introduction
·这个问题是怎么研究的? 答案就是Materials and Methods
·发现了什么? 答案就是Results
·这些发现意味着什么? 答案就是Disscussion
按照这个结构整体规划论文,有一个方法值得借鉴,即剑桥大学爱席比教授提出的“概念图”(图一)。首先在一张大纸上(A3或A4纸,横放)写下文章题目(事先定好题目很重要),然后根据IMRaD的结构确定基本的段落主题,把他们写在不同的方框内。你可以记录任何你脑海中闪现的可以包括在该部分的内容,诸如段落标题、图表、需要进一步阐述的观点等等,把它们写在方框附近的圈内,并用箭头标示它们的所属方框。画概念图的阶段也是自由思考的阶段,在此过程中不必拘泥于细节。哪些东西需要包括进文章?还需要做哪些工作,是找到某文献的原文,还是补画一张图表,或者需要再查找某个参考文献?当你发现自己需要再加进一个段落时就在概念图中添加一个新框。如果你发现原来的顺序需作调整,那就用箭头标示新的顺序。绘制概念图的过程看似儿童游戏,但其意义重大,它可以给你自由思考的空间,并通过图示的方式记录你思维发展的过程。这便是写论文的第一步:从整体考虑文章结构,思考各种组织文章的方法,准备好所需的资料,随时记录出现的新想法。采用这个方法,不论正式下笔时是从哪一部分写起,都能够能做到大局不乱。
图一 爱希比教授用来规划文章的“概念图”(Ashby,2000)
以下对论文的基本组成部分及需要特别注意的方面逐一阐述。
ABSTRACT(摘要)
科技论文摘要通常包括以下几项内容:研究动机,研究方法,主要结果,简要结论。顾名思义,摘要应该言简意赅,因此争取用一句话说明一项内容,每项最多不要超过三句话。通常在提交论文全文之前需要先提交摘要,摘要实际上就是一个小的IMRaD结
构:为什么做这个研究?用了什么方法?取得了什么结果?结论是什么?这些问题逐一回答了,摘要就写完整了。
INTRODUCTION(引言)
Introduction看似简单,但并不容易写好。好的Introduction通常包括三部分内容:介绍研究课题(性质,范围等等);陈述对于该课题已有的主要研究成果;解释你对课题研究的特殊贡献,例如使用了什么新方法等。
写这一部分应该尽量简练。好的启始句非常重要,因为Introduction应该吸引读者而不是让读者生厌。有许多论文以“It is widely accepted that...is important”开头,这样的启始句让读者还没进入正文就开始打哈欠。在Introduction这一部分可以简单介绍你的主要研究结果和结论,也可以不介绍结论而只介绍研究方法。读者读完Introduction之后看论文的其他部分不应该再有惊奇的发现,因为读科技论文和读侦探小说不一样,读者希望开头就知道结果。
METHODS(方法)
Methods部分的目的在于描述所用的材料,实验装置,实验方法,理论模型,计算方法。写好这部分的关键在于把握好 “度”,即提供恰到好处的细节,避免过于简单或繁琐(太繁复或不必须的公式、推导可放入附录appendix)。衡量标准是看你所提供的细节是否足以让感兴趣的专业读者重复你的实验或方法。在这一部分不需要汇报结果。RESULTS(结果)
在Results部分只需要如实地汇报结果和数据即可,无需加入自己的解释,让结果和数据来表达研究结论。这一部分通常会包含图表。读者在阅读一篇论文时,往往看完题目和摘要后就会浏览所有图表,有进一步兴趣才会再读文章的其它部分,所以图表非常重要。它们不仅应该简明,清晰,准确,还应该完整,即每一个图表均应有详尽说明,读者即使不看论文的文字部分也能够理解图表所要传达的信息。图表的顺序也很重要,它们应该体现行文的逻辑。有些作者习惯于将一系列图表陈列在一起,不在表头作解释,仅在文字中简单地进行介绍,期待读者自己去研究理解各个图表,这种做法是不可取的。DISCUSSION(讨论分析)
Disscussion是论文的精髓所在,也是中国人普遍感到难写的部分,其内容可能包括:提炼原理,揭示关联,进行归纳;提出分析,模型或理论;解释结果(Results)与作者进行的分析,模型或理论之间的联系。
因为包含了作者的观点和解释,这一部分在行文时需要注意语气,不可夸张;同时也要注意避免无关紧要或并不相关的内容。
CONCLUSIONS(结论)
在论文的结论(Conclusions)部分,作者应该总结阐明论文的主要结果及其重要性,同时点明局限性或有所保留的地方。结论应该是水到渠成,不应有让读者感到惊奇的内容,通常也不应该引用文章其他部分未曾提及的文献。爱希比教授的“概念图”表明,Conclusions实际上就是把Results和Disscussion的精要部分进行总结。结论可以分点陈述,简洁概括,达到“豹尾”的效果。
TENSE(时态)
撰写英文论文会涉及时态。通常科技论文采用的时态为一般过去时,但在列表、进行统计分析或描述不争事实时应该采用一般现在时。例如:
“Table 4 shows that...”(列表);
“These values are significantly greater than those of the females of the same age,indicating that the males grew more rapidly”(统计分析);
“Water was added and the towers became damp ,which proves again that water is wet(不争事实)。
但根据Day(1989)的建议,论文中凡涉及研究领域内已存在的理论和知识(包括他人在此之前发表过的论文)时均应采用一般现在时来表示对理论贡献者们的尊重。以此推
理,Introduction 和Discussion的绝大部分内容(即涉及研究领域内已有的理论和知识的部分)应采用一般现在时。按照Day的建议,摘要通常应该采用一般过去时,因为作者在这里主要是介绍自己的工作。表一概括了科技论文主要组成部分的时态使用一般规则。表一 时态使用总结
引言方法结果讨论
现在时大量使用很少使用很少使用大量使用
过去时偶尔使用大量使用大量使用偶尔使用
VOICE(语态)
除了时态,语态也是撰写英文论文应该注意的方面。读者可能会发现大量英文科技论文都采用被动语态,这虽然是事实,但并不是规则。其实,使用被动态语态往往违背科技论文”精确 ”、“简洁”的要求。譬如”It was found that” 就远没有"I found ”来的清晰明了。我的一位同事在博士论文中通篇采用被动语态,结果答辩时考官不明白他到底是在引用别人的工作还是自己的工作。科技论文中主动语态和被动语态可以并用,具体使用哪种语态首先取决于句子所要强调的重点,同时应该考虑表达的简练和精确。
PARTICIPLE(分词)
中文作者在写英文论文时常常会写出这样的句子:
After closing the incision, the animal was placed in a restraining cage.Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest.从语法上分析,这两个句子的隐含主语分别为:the animal 和the bacteria, 但作者省略掉的真正的主语其实是the experimenter。所以这两个句子都造成了歧义。这是典型的使用分词从句造成(以„ing‟或„ed‟结尾)的错误,如果改用一般从句,这种错误就避免了:
After the incision had been closed, the animal placed in a restraining cage.Once the study was completed, the bacteria were of no further interest.ADJECTIVE and ADVERB(形容词和副词)
在科技论文中使用形容词和副词要慎重。像“fairly”, “quite”, “rather”, “several”, “very”, “somewhat”, “much”, “amazing”这样的的修饰词在科技论文中最好不用。例如,爱希比教授认为,“this very important point” 不及“this important point”来得简洁客观,而“this point” 则更佳。
ART(冠词)
中文作者对英文冠词的掌握通常不够好,例如经常会忘记冠词 “the”,克服的方法之一是检查名词,如果名词前没有加不定冠词“a”或 “an”,而该名词又非抽象名词或不可数名词,则要考虑是否应该在前面加上定冠词 “the”。表二总结了一些使用定冠词的规则以供参照,当然最好还是通过多读多写得好的英文论文以增强语感。
表二 定冠词使用规则
必须使用定冠词的情况例子
第二次提及We proposed a new model.The model is …
最高级The most important parameter
序数词The first slide
特指The only research in this field
通用知识/独有事物The government /the moon
of短语The behavior of the species
以人名定义的现象等The Doppler effect
REFERENCE(参考文献)
许多中文作者在写英文论文时习惯于参照一些英文论文,但一定要注意这些参照论文的质量!用英文发表的论文也是良莠不齐,有的在表达上并不一定准确。如果参照原本就不好的句子,拼拼凑凑是无法写出一篇好文章的。即使参照的范文很好,也要注意消化吸收后变为自己的东西。常有这样的情况出现:一篇表达不甚好的英文论文中有几句或几段非常精彩,与文章的其他部分格格不入,如果文章中不指出这些文句的来源(参考文献),作者无疑是留下了一个抄袭的痕迹!
以上是撰写英文科技论文的基本常识,有些建议是专门针对中国学者的,因而有必要在这里指出:谦虚的中国学者需要注意在科技论文中避免使用抱歉词句。说“Unfortunately, there was insufficient time to complete the last set of tests”只能让读者认为作者计划不好,懒惰,能力不够。
写一篇好的英文科技论文需要反复推敲,修改。写完初稿后最好把它搁在一边两三天后再拿过来修改。在最终定稿前要仔细检查格式、标点符号,核对参考文献等等,哪一样细节都不应该忽视。科技论文写作有许多技巧,本文仅起到抛砖引玉的作用。有兴趣的读者可以参阅以下参考文献,它们简洁明了,本身就是很好的写作范例。
Ashby, M.(2000)”How to write a paper?” Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.Available online:
http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~tw/phd/ashby.pdf
Day, R.A(1989)How to write and publish a scientific paper(3rd edition),Cambridge University press, Cambridge, UK.Strunck, W.,and White,E.B.(1959)The Element of Style.Macmillan Co., New York, USA.Woodford, F.P.(1968)(ed.)Scientific writing for graduate students – a manual on the teaching of scientific writing, Rockfeller University Press, New York,USA.